Key topics:
Implementing EU bioenergy policy in EU overseas territories
Targeting energy independence within a restrictive national context
EGC: A potential governance instrument for local policy translation on Réunion Island
Ambitions for energy independence have been on the agenda of the French EU overseas territory of Reunion Island since the early 2000s and are included in the Regional Schema for Climate, Air, Energy (SRCAE 2013), the regional translation of France’s rather unambitious National Renewable Energy Action Plan (NREAP) (EC 2015) established under the 2009 EU Renewable Energy Directive (RED 2009). The regional objective of energy independence by 2030 was written into French law in 2015 as part of the Energy Transition for Green Growth Act (law no 2015-992).
The black sheep
Despite its insular locality in the Indian Ocean, Reunion Island is subject to EU and French legislation and part of a wider EU bioenergy governance assemblage (Albrecht et al. 2017). Thus, the tropical island is bound to translate EU transnational policy, which is largely designed for EU mainland member purposes, and develop energy solutions according to its own geography and socio-economic environment. While these elements make its energy policy translation processes interesting, understanding the case is essential from the perspective of EU policy/governance applicability for other localities not focused on when policies are developed/translated in transnational or national loops.
Like most places with ambitious aims, Reunion Island is still a long way from energy independence, especially regarding transportation. It does, however, have the potential to achieve its goal regarding electricity production and consumption. The island has an insular energy system, lacking grid connections to neighbouring countries, while common grid development is a key aspect of EU energy policy. It also differs from the French mainland in that it lacks both nuclear energy and a privatized distribution network, two significant aspects shaping French energy policy.
The majority of its electricity comes from fossil fuels, but hydroelectricity, bagasse (from sugar production) and solar power also contribute to the energy mix. Electricity distribution is provided solely by EDF, the former state monopoly, with prices fixed at the same rate as on the French mainland in an act of solidarity prescribed by French law (SRCAE 2013). This makes producing cost effective renewable energy difficult as prices are not based on local production costs.
Governance for the people by the people
The drive towards energy independence began with the creation of a regional energy agency to develop Reunion Island’s resources and educate its inhabitants. Under the SCRAE, a regional energy governance committee (EGC) was established to evaluate and guide renewable energy development by uniting stakeholders. The committee consists of members from local, regional and national governments, as well as corporations and the public divided into subcommittees.
The EGC has successfully incorporated these groups to work towards the goals of energy independence and reducing domestic energy consumption through various programs, like subsidizing solar powered hot water tanks and distributing energy efficient light bulbs. While generally successful, the EGC’s close co-operation with private companies in the decision-making process carries inherent risks. The inclusion of EDF in the EGC is unquestionable, but its influential role on the strategic committee poses barriers to regional energy transition. Larger electricity producers are interested in distributing electricity and alternative solutions, but some claim that EDF uses its position to resist developments that would essentially remove clients from its distribution network.
Innovation and legal impediments
Due to these restrictions and its location, the region has translated EU and French energy policy into the promotion of the island as an experimental niche for marine energy development. It has attracted a variety of companies working on innovative marine energy projects, some of which have failed, like a prototype for energy from ocean swell that was destroyed during a cyclone (Royer 2015), while others have succeeded, like the world’s first large-scale application of sea water air conditioning (Saudemont 2015) and a prototype for ocean thermal energy conversion (DCNS 2014). The latter’s local benefits did not pay off as the company that developed the technology decided to build a full-scale model in the Caribbean instead of on Reunion Island – reiterating the risks of even successful innovations.
While it is difficult to say which solution would be best for Reunion’s energy transition, these examples show how important it is for transnational policy design and its subsequent translations to integrate the heterogeneous geographical aspects of the places where policies are implemented.
French laws also impede regional energy development on Reunion Island. The French NREAP (EC 2015) and the SRCAE (2013) state that biomass will be the primary source of renewable energy. Currently, 10% of the island’s electricity comes from biomass and Albioma, the producer, is looking for ways to increase production. Yet, possible pathways, like more fibrous sugar cane, have met with resistance from the sugar industry as it would reduce sugar output (the island’s main source of income).
Biomass availability is also restricted by a national park that covers 40% of the island and whose rules forbid the removal of biomass, even non-endemic invasive species. This lack is further compounded by vertiginous terrain, limited road networks and urban development along the coast where the majority of the population lives. Importing biomass from neighbouring countries is consequently being considered, but this will naturally call into question the climate mitigation aspects of EU energy policy. Other renewables are confronted with similar restrictions as France’s Coastal Law (1986) forbids the construction of wind turbines over 50 metres tall within 500 metres of any building, rendering it virtually impossible to build efficient wind farms on the island.
While it is difficult to say which solution would be best for Reunion’s energy transition, these examples show how important it is for transnational policy design and its subsequent translations to integrate the heterogeneous geographical aspects of the places where policies are implemented. It also highlights the challenges of implementing mobile policies, like RED, under restrictive national policy translations and economic path dependencies (e.g. EDF’s monopoly) that further diminish the possibilities of otherwise potentially functioning governance instruments in disconnected localities, like the EGC. The problem is less with the EU policy framework than with barriers deriving from French national translations and regional socio-economic peculiarities. Reunion Island’s potentials for its ambitious plans for energy transition and independence would be greatly improved if it would be allowed to translate EU energy policy directly.
MATTHEW SAWATZKY & MORITZ ALBRECHT
References
Albrecht, M., Kortelainen, J., Sawatzky, M., Lukkarinen, J. & Rytteri, T. (2017). Translating bioen-ergy policy in Europe: Mutation, aims and boosterism in EU energy governance. Geoforum, 87, 73-84.
Coastal Law (1986) Loi Loi n° 86-2 du 3 janvier 1986 relative à l’aménagement, la protection et la mise en valeur du littoral.
DCNS. (2014) Ocean thermal energy conversion. 5.4.2018.
EC. (2015) National action plans. European Commission, Brussels. 5.4.2015.
RED. (2009) Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and the Council of 23 April 2009 on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources and amending and subsequently repealing Directives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC.
Royer, J. (2015) Case study: CETO La Reunion. 5.4.2018.
Saudemont, E. (2015) Première mondiale à la Réunion: Un projet SWAC de 40 MW froid. Pétrole & Gaz. 25.05.2015. 5.4.2018.
SRCAE. (2013) Schéma Régional Climat Air Énergie de la Réunion. Préfet de la Réunion, Region Réunion, ADEME. 5.4.2018.
Original article Translating EU energy policy for insular energy systems: Re-union Island’s quest for energy autonomy can be found here. Sawatzky, M. & Albrecht, M. 2017. Fennia, 195:2
Implementing EU bioenergy policy in EU overseas territories
Targeting energy independence within a restrictive national context
EGC: A potential governance instrument for local policy translation on Réunion Island
Ambitions for energy independence have been on the agenda of the French EU overseas territory of Reunion Island since the early 2000s and are included in the Regional Schema for Climate, Air, Energy (SRCAE 2013), the regional translation of France’s rather unambitious National Renewable Energy Action Plan (NREAP) (EC 2015) established under the 2009 EU Renewable Energy Directive (RED 2009). The regional objective of energy independence by 2030 was written into French law in 2015 as part of the Energy Transition for Green Growth Act (law no 2015-992).
The black sheep
Despite its insular locality in the Indian Ocean, Reunion Island is subject to EU and French legislation and part of a wider EU bioenergy governance assemblage (Albrecht et al. 2017). Thus, the tropical island is bound to translate EU transnational policy, which is largely designed for EU mainland member purposes, and develop energy solutions according to its own geography and socio-economic environment. While these elements make its energy policy translation processes interesting, understanding the case is essential from the perspective of EU policy/governance applicability for other localities not focused on when policies are developed/translated in transnational or national loops.
Like most places with ambitious aims, Reunion Island is still a long way from energy independence, especially regarding transportation. It does, however, have the potential to achieve its goal regarding electricity production and consumption. The island has an insular energy system, lacking grid connections to neighbouring countries, while common grid development is a key aspect of EU energy policy. It also differs from the French mainland in that it lacks both nuclear energy and a privatized distribution network, two significant aspects shaping French energy policy.
The majority of its electricity comes from fossil fuels, but hydroelectricity, bagasse (from sugar production) and solar power also contribute to the energy mix. Electricity distribution is provided solely by EDF, the former state monopoly, with prices fixed at the same rate as on the French mainland in an act of solidarity prescribed by French law (SRCAE 2013). This makes producing cost effective renewable energy difficult as prices are not based on local production costs.
Governance for the people by the people
The drive towards energy independence began with the creation of a regional energy agency to develop Reunion Island’s resources and educate its inhabitants. Under the SCRAE, a regional energy governance committee (EGC) was established to evaluate and guide renewable energy development by uniting stakeholders. The committee consists of members from local, regional and national governments, as well as corporations and the public divided into subcommittees.
The EGC has successfully incorporated these groups to work towards the goals of energy independence and reducing domestic energy consumption through various programs, like subsidizing solar powered hot water tanks and distributing energy efficient light bulbs. While generally successful, the EGC’s close co-operation with private companies in the decision-making process carries inherent risks. The inclusion of EDF in the EGC is unquestionable, but its influential role on the strategic committee poses barriers to regional energy transition. Larger electricity producers are interested in distributing electricity and alternative solutions, but some claim that EDF uses its position to resist developments that would essentially remove clients from its distribution network.
Innovation and legal impediments
Due to these restrictions and its location, the region has translated EU and French energy policy into the promotion of the island as an experimental niche for marine energy development. It has attracted a variety of companies working on innovative marine energy projects, some of which have failed, like a prototype for energy from ocean swell that was destroyed during a cyclone (Royer 2015), while others have succeeded, like the world’s first large-scale application of sea water air conditioning (Saudemont 2015) and a prototype for ocean thermal energy conversion (DCNS 2014). The latter’s local benefits did not pay off as the company that developed the technology decided to build a full-scale model in the Caribbean instead of on Reunion Island – reiterating the risks of even successful innovations.
French laws also impede regional energy development on Reunion Island. The French NREAP (EC 2015) and the SRCAE (2013) state that biomass will be the primary source of renewable energy. Currently, 10% of the island’s electricity comes from biomass and Albioma, the producer, is looking for ways to increase production. Yet, possible pathways, like more fibrous sugar cane, have met with resistance from the sugar industry as it would reduce sugar output (the island’s main source of income).
Biomass availability is also restricted by a national park that covers 40% of the island and whose rules forbid the removal of biomass, even non-endemic invasive species. This lack is further compounded by vertiginous terrain, limited road networks and urban development along the coast where the majority of the population lives. Importing biomass from neighbouring countries is consequently being considered, but this will naturally call into question the climate mitigation aspects of EU energy policy. Other renewables are confronted with similar restrictions as France’s Coastal Law (1986) forbids the construction of wind turbines over 50 metres tall within 500 metres of any building, rendering it virtually impossible to build efficient wind farms on the island.
While it is difficult to say which solution would be best for Reunion’s energy transition, these examples show how important it is for transnational policy design and its subsequent translations to integrate the heterogeneous geographical aspects of the places where policies are implemented. It also highlights the challenges of implementing mobile policies, like RED, under restrictive national policy translations and economic path dependencies (e.g. EDF’s monopoly) that further diminish the possibilities of otherwise potentially functioning governance instruments in disconnected localities, like the EGC. The problem is less with the EU policy framework than with barriers deriving from French national translations and regional socio-economic peculiarities. Reunion Island’s potentials for its ambitious plans for energy transition and independence would be greatly improved if it would be allowed to translate EU energy policy directly.
MATTHEW SAWATZKY & MORITZ ALBRECHT
References
Albrecht, M., Kortelainen, J., Sawatzky, M., Lukkarinen, J. & Rytteri, T. (2017). Translating bioen-ergy policy in Europe: Mutation, aims and boosterism in EU energy governance. Geoforum, 87, 73-84.
Coastal Law (1986) Loi Loi n° 86-2 du 3 janvier 1986 relative à l’aménagement, la protection et la mise en valeur du littoral.
DCNS. (2014) Ocean thermal energy conversion. 5.4.2018.
EC. (2015) National action plans. European Commission, Brussels. 5.4.2015.
RED. (2009) Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and the Council of 23 April 2009 on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources and amending and subsequently repealing Directives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC.
Royer, J. (2015) Case study: CETO La Reunion. 5.4.2018.
Saudemont, E. (2015) Première mondiale à la Réunion: Un projet SWAC de 40 MW froid. Pétrole & Gaz. 25.05.2015. 5.4.2018.
SRCAE. (2013) Schéma Régional Climat Air Énergie de la Réunion. Préfet de la Réunion, Region Réunion, ADEME. 5.4.2018.
Matthew Sawatzky
Matthew Sawatzky holds a PhD from the University of Eastern Finland. His research interests include energy transitions, forest use, the bioeconomy and sustainability. He is currently employed as a carpenter in the East Kootenay Region of British Columbia, Canada.
Moritz Albrecht
Moritz Albrecht is a trained human geographer with expertise in natural resource and environmental governance and sustainability transformations. Moritz works as a post-doctoral researcher at the University of Eastern Finland at the Department of Geographical and Historical Studies. His current research work focuses on EU bioeconomy policy mobility, translations and regional bioeconomy development. He has expertise in the transnational environmental forest and bioenergy governance, policies and sustainability perceptions in the EU.
Lue kommentaarit
Niko Humalisto
Niko Humalisto on taloudellisen oikeudenmukaisuuden asiantuntija Suomen Lähetysseurassa. Vapaa-ajalla Humalisto on tutkijatohtori Itä-Suomen yliopiston Historia- ja Maantieteiden laitoksella ja Suomen Maantieteellisen Seuran varapuheenjohtaja. Humalisto on kiinnostunut lannasta, jätteistä ja kehityspolitiikasta.
Tasapainoilua uusiutuvan energian edistämisen ja muiden kestävän kehityksen tavoitteiden välillä?
Sawatskyn ja Albrechtin artikkeli tarjoaa näkökulman markkinoihin kytkeytymättömän energiajärjestelmän kehittämiseen. Reunionin saari on maantieteellisesti pieni alue mutta aihe koskettaa monia. Eristyneitä järjestelmiä on monissa kylissä ja kaupungeissa sähköverkkojen ulkopuolella ympäri Globaalia Etelää. Suurin osa maapallon väestöstä käyttää edelleen biomassaa pääasiallisena energianlähteenä ja yli miljardilta ihmiseltä on puutteellinen pääsy sähköverkkoihin (1).
Huolimatta kirjoittajien analyyttisestä huolellisuudesta ja kiinnostavista havainnoista, tartun pieneen mutta nähdäkseni tärkeään näkökulmaan tutkijoiden omista preferensseistä. Keskiössä on tapa, jolla he rajaavat käsittelynsä koskemaan uusiutuvaa energiaa tiukasti energiaomavaraisuuden näkökulmasta.
Artikkelissa tuodaan esille, kuinka saarelle on Ranskan aloitteesta perustettu kansallispuisto ja UNESCOn maailmanperintökohde. Nämä siirretyt poliittiset ympäristönsuojelua edistävät instrumentit näyttäytyvät kirjoittajille energiatransition suhteen ”esteinä” ja ”epäonnisina seurauksina”, joita he toivovat taivutettavaksi bio- ja tuulienergian tieltä. (2)
Taustaksi on hyvä tuoda esille, että Reunionin saarella elää monia eri kotoperäisiä lajeja, joita ei tavata muualla. Jo 19 näistä alkuperäisistä lajeista on kuollut sukupuuttoon ihmisen saarelle saapumisen jälkeen. Tulokaslajien ohella suurin uhka luonnon monimuotoisuudelle on lajien elinympäristöjen hävittäminen. Samalla saaren väestönkasvu on kaikista EU:n alueista nopeinta, mikä tuskin vähentää ympäristöön kohdistuvia paineita (3). Lyhyen tiedonhaun pohjalta saan siis vaikutelman, että saaren luontoon kohdistuu riskejä.
Tutkimani bioenergian ja biopolttoaineiden edistämisen ristiriidat suhteessa muiden kestävän kehityksen tavoitteisiin ilmentävät, että uusiutuvien energialähteiden edistäminen ei ole välttämättä linjassa muiden kestävän kehityksen tavoitteiden suhteen (4). Annan tästä tuoreen esimerkin työnantajani Lähetysseuran hankkeista Tansaniassa. Tansanialaisten kumppaniemme istuttamat puut sitovat hiiltä, joita on tarkoitus kaupata päästökompensaationa Suomessa. Näissä hankkeissa energia- tai ilmastohyöty on kuitenkin toisarvoinen tavoite: istutukset tehdään paikallisilla puulajeilla miettien niiden tarjoamia ekosysteemipalveluja sekä metsien käyttöä hedelmien tai hunajan tuotannossa. Puhtaasti puiden biomassan energiapotentiaalin näkökulmasta nopeasti kasvava yhden puulajin plantaasi voisi kuitenkin olla parempi ratkaisu, vaikka se köyhdyttäisikin paikallista väestöä ja vähentäisi luonnon monimuotoisuutta.
Ennen kuin muodostan kannan kirjoittajien kiinnostukseen taivuttaa saarella vaikuttavia suojeluinstrumentteja, olisi minusta tärkeää tietää, onko aurinkosähkön helposti kaupallistettava potentiaali saarella jo hyödynnetty. Olisi myös erikoista, jos saaren liki miljoona asukasta (ja yli 500 000 saarella vierailevaa turistia (5)) eivät tuottaisi minkäänlaisia biojäteitä tai yhdyskuntalietteitä energiasektorin hyödynnettäväksi vaikkapa biokaasulaitoksissa.. Kun saaren energiavaihtoehtoihin lisää saarella jo pilotoidut merienergiateknologiat, nousee tästä muita uusiutuvan energian lähteitä koskevasta teemasta kaksi kysymystä jatkokeskusteluun.
Ensinnäkin, missä määrin tutkijoiden mainitsemat ympäristönsuojelua tukevat instrumentit rajoittavat uusiutuvan energiantuotannon edistämistä Reunionin saarella? Tilanteen voi nähdä mielestäni myös niin, että noudattaen EU:n varovaisuusperiaatetta nämä instrumentit ohjaavat uusiutuvan energian kehitystä pois luonnonsuojelualueiden resursseja käyttävästä bioenergiatuotannosta ja kohti saaren muita uusiutuvan energian lähteitä.
On varmasti totta, että tutkijoiden esille nostama saarella nopeasti leviävien vieraslajien hyödyntäminen bioenergiana voi olla win-win-win ratkaisu. Ratkaisun avulla saari voisi vähentää kasvihuonekaasupäästöjä, suojella alkuperäisluontoa ja vähentää tuontiriippuvuutta energiasta. Kuitenkin tulokaslajien energiakäytön liiketoimintakonsepti ja näiden biomassalähteiden energiapotentiaali suhteessa niiden hankkimiseen kuluvaan energiaan jäävät esittelemättä. Siksi idean liiketaloudellinen kannattavuus jää arvoitukseksi. Jätemateriaalien ja sivuainevirtojen resurssiksi tekeminen vaatii tyypillisesti yksittäisiä teknologista ratkaisuja laajempaa yhteiskunnallista sosiaalista ja materiaalista uudelleenjärjestämistä (6). Joudutaanko suojelualueille esimerkiksi rakentamaan teitä tai muuta infrastruktuuria vieraslajien poistamista ja kuljetusta varten?
Toiseksi, onko tässä ympäristönsuojelun instrumenttien ja paikallisten energiatavoitteiden välillä tunnistetussa jännitteessä pikemmin kyse politiikan sektorien välisistä poikkeavista intresseistä kuin eri skaaloilta kumpuavien instrumenttien koherenssista? Kysyn tätä, koska mielestäni herkullisin keskustelunaihe käsillä olevassa tutkimuksessa ei koske melko itsestään selvää havaintoa siitä, että ylikansallinen tai -paikallinen politiikka pitää aktiivisesti sovittaa osaksi paikallista kontekstia. Pikemminkin kiinnostavaa on, kuinka erilaiset kestävän kehityksen agendan tavoitteet planeettaamme kohtaan voidaan sovittaa yhteen prosesseissa, joissa eristyneet energiajärjestelmät liittyvät osaksi kansainvälisiä energia(poliittisia) kokoonpanoja.
Lähteet:
1. International Energy Agency, 2017. Energy Access Outlook 2017, https://www.iea.org/access2017/
2. Sawatzky, M & Albrecht, M., 2017. Translating EU renewable energy policy for insular energy systems: Reunion Island’s quest for energy autonomy. Fennia 195: 2, pp. 125–141. Katso sivu 137.
3. Petit, J. and Prudent, G. (eds), 2010. Climate Change and Biodiversity in the European Union Overseas
Entities. Gland, Switzerland and Brussels, Belgium: IUCN. Reprint, Gland, Switzerland and Brussels, Belgium: IUCN. 192 pp.
4. Humalisto, N., 2015. Climate policy integration and governing indirect land-use changes—Actors in the
EU’s biofuel policy-formulation, Land Use Policy, 45:150 DOI: 10.1016/j.landusepol.2015.01.024
5. Katso, https://www.tourism-review.com/reunion-island-celebrates-positive-numbers-news10570
6. Nicky Gregson , Helen Watkins & Melania Calestani (2013) Political markets: recycling, economization and marketization, Economy and Society, 42:1, 1-25
NIKO HUMALISTO
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